Relative Clauses (4)

Prepositions in relative clauses

Part A

In formal styles we often put a preposition before the relative pronouns which and whom:
• The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
• In the novel by Meyer, on which the film is based, the main character is a teenager.
• An actor with whom Gump had previously worked contacted him about the role.
• Her many friends, among whom I like to be considered, gave her encouragement.

Notice that after a preposition you can’t use who instead of whom, and you can’t use that or zero relative pronoun:
• Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to whom they are accountable?
(NOT) Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public who they are accountable?
• The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted.
(NOT) The valley in that town lies is heavily polluted.
• Arnold tried to gauge the speed at which they were travelling.
(NOT) Arnold tried to gauge the speed at they were travelling.

In informal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause rather than at the beginning:
• The office which Graham led the way to was filled with books.
• Jim’s footballing ability, which he was noted for, had been encouraged by his parents.
• The playground wasn’t used by those children who it was built for.

In this case we prefer who rather than whom (although ‘whom’ is used in formal contexts). In defining relative clauses we can also use that or zero relative pronouns instead of who or which e.g. the children (that) it was built for.

If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-word verb (e.g. come across, full in, go through, look after, look up to, put up with, take on) we don’t usually put the preposition before the relative pronoun:
• Your essay is one of those (which/that) I’ll go through tomorrow.
(rather than Your essay is one of those through which I’ll go tomorrow.
• She is one of the few people (who/that) I look up to.
(NOT) She is one the few people to whom I look up.

Examples:
1. They climbed up to the top of a large work, from which they got a good view.
2. I would like to thank my tutor, without whom I would never have finished the work.
3. She has now moved back to the house on Long Island in which she was born.
4. The star is to be named after Patrick Jenks, by whom it was discovered.
5. This is the ball which Dennis scored three goals in the final.
6. He is now able to beat his father, from whom he learned how to play chess.
7. The book is enjoyed by adults as well as children, for whom it was primarily written.
8. There are still many things in our solar system about which/of which we know nothing.

The sentences above in a less formal way:
1. They climbed up to the top of a large work, which they got a good view from.
2. I would like to thank my tutor, who I would never have finished the work without.
3. She has now moved back to the house on Long Island (which/that) she was born in.
4. The star is to be named after Patrick Jenks, who it was discovered by.
5. This is the ball (which/that) Dennis scored three goals with in the final. (or in the final with)
6. He is now able to beat his father, who he learned how to play chess from.
7. The book is enjoyed by adults as well as children, who it was primarily written for.
8. There are still many things in our solar system (which/what) we know nothing about/of.

Others:
1. It’s a piece of jewellery across which I came across in an antique shop.
2. The extra work which she took on was starting to affect her health.
3. My mother, who/whom I looked after for over 20 years, died last year.
4. The people who I work with are all very friendly.
5. Some of the criticisms which they had to put up with were very unfair.
6. He had many friends with whom he had a regular correspondence.
7. The woman who/whom(formal) he is engaged to comes from England.
8. The form which I had to fill in were very complicated.

Part B

In formal written English, we often prefer to use of which rather than whose to talk about things:
• A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being felt, or
A huge amount of oil was spilled, whose effect are still being felt.
• The end of the war, the anniversary of which is on the 16th of November, will be commemorated in cities throughout the century or
The end of the war whose anniversary is on the 16th of November will be commemorated in cities throughout the memory.

Notice that we can’t use of which instead of whose in the patterns described in Relative Clauses (1b) :
• Dorothy was able to switch between German, Polish, and Russian, all of which the spoke fluently.
(NOT) Dorothy was able to switch between German, Polish, and Russian all whose she spoke fluently.

We can sometimes use “that…of” instead of “of which” This is less formal than of which and whose, and is mainly used in spoken English:
• The school that she is head of is closing down or
The school of which she is head of is closing down.

Whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. However, it is more natural to put the preposition at the end of the clause in less formal contexts and in spoken English:
• We were grateful to Mr Marks, in whose car we had travelled home or
We were grateful to Mr Marks whose car we had travelled home in.
• I now turn to Freud, from whose work the following quotation is taken.
I now turn to Freud whose work the following quotation is taken from.

Examples:
1. Tom, whose car the weapons were found in, has been arrested.
2. Meyer, whose novel the TV series is based on, will appear in the first episode.
3. Dr Jackson owns the castle whose grounds the main road passes through.
4. Tessa Parsons is now managing director of Simons, the company that she was once a secretary in.
5. Allowing the weapons to be sold is an action that the Government should be ashamed of.
6. The dragonfly is an insect that we know very little of.

The sentences above in more appropriate for formal written English:
1. Tom, in whose car the weapons were found, has been arrested.
2. Meyer, on whose novel the TV series is based, will appear in the first episode.
3. Dr Jackson owns the castle through whose grounds the main road passes.
4. Tessa Parsons is now managing director of Simons, the company in which she was once a secretary.
5. Allowing the weapons to be sold is an action of which the Government should be ashamed.
6. The Dragonfly is an insect of which (or about which) we know very little.

Reference: Advanced Grammar in Use - Martin Hewings

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Relative Clause (3)

Other relative pronouns

Part A
Whose

We use a relative clause beginning with whose + noun, particularly in written English, when we talk about something belonging to or associated with a person. Compare:
• Ellen Page is an architect. Her designs have won international praise. And
Ellen Page is an architect whose designs have won international praise.
• Doctor Arthur has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resigned two weeks ago. And
Doctor Arthur, whose secretary resigned two weeks ago, has had to do all his own typing.

We can use whose in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
We sometimes use whose when we are talking about things, in particular when we are talking about town or countries, and organizations:
• The film was made in Botswana, whose wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.
• We need to learn from companies whose trading is more healthy than our own.
• The newspaper is owned by the Mearson Group, whose chairman is Sir James Bex.

We can also use whose when we are talking about particular items, although it is often more natural in spoken English to avoid sentences like this:
I received a letter, whose poor spelling made me think It was written by a child.
(more natural would be I received letter, and it’s poor spelling.. )

Examples:
1. First, go through the text underlining the words whose meanings you don’t know
2. My friend Miriam, whose mother is Indonesian, has gone to live in Jakarta.
3. He’s a teacher in London working with children whose first language is not English.
4. People whose work involves standing for most of the day often suffer from backache.
5. It has been found that the trees are being destroyed by a moth whose caterpillars tunnel under the bark.
6. The airline, whose head office is situated in France, has recently begun to fly between Paris and Lima.
7. An orphan is a child whose parents are dead.
8. A plumber is a person whose job it us to fit and repair water pipes.
9. A refuse collector is a person whose job it is to empty people’s dustbins and take their rubbish away.

Part B
Where, When, Whereby, Why

We often use the words where, when, and whereby as relative pronouns. But in formal English in particular, a phrase with preposition + which can often be used instead:
• This was the place where we first met or
This was the place at/in which we first met.
• He wasn’t looking forward to the time (when) he would have to give evidence to the court or
He wasn’t looking forward to the time at which he would have to give evidence to the court.
• Do you know the date when we have to submit the first essay?
Do you know the date on/by which we have to submit the first essay?
• The government is to end the system whereby (=by which means) farmers make more money from leaving land unplanted than from growing wheat or
The government is to end the system in/by which farmers make more money from leaving land unplanted than from growing wheat.

We can also use why as a relative pronoun after the word reason. In informal English we can use that instead of why:
• I didn’t get a pay rise, but this wasn’t the reason why I left
I didn’t get a pay rise, but this wasn’t the reason that I left

Examples:
1. The beach is the place where I most like to be in the summer.
2. The agreement whereby whisky made in Japan can be sold in Britain has been criticized in Scotland.
3. The period during which Russ lived in Italy was also the time when he began to paint.
4. The new law means an end to the situation whereby charities have to pay tax on money given to them.
5. The building where I used to work had 24 floors.
6. He has been unwell, and this may be the reason why he lost the match.
7. A referendum is a vote in which all the people in a country are asked to give their opinion about a policy.
8. Morse code is a system for sending messages in which letters are represented by short and long marks or sounds.
9. A chat show is a television programme in which famous people are asked questions about their lives and their work.

Part C
Who, What, Whatever, Whoever, Whichever

We sometimes use relative clauses beginning with who or what. In this case,
who means ‘the people that’ and what means something like ‘the thing(s) that’:
• Can you give me a list who’s been invited?
• I didn’t know what to do next.
Notice that we can’t use what in this way after a noun.
• I managed to get all the books that you asked for.
NOT (I managed to get all the books what you asked for.)

Relative clauses beginning with
• whatever (=anything or it doesn’t matter what)
• whoever (=the person/group who or any person/group who), or
• whichever (=one thing or person from a limited number or things or people)
are used to talk about things or people that are indefinite or unknown:
• I’m sure I’ll enjoy eating whatever you cook.
• Whoever wins will go on to play Barcelona in the final.
• Whichever one of you broke the window will have to pay for it.

Exercises:
1. Buy vanilla ice cream. It’s the only flavor (that) he likes.
2. Whichever party comes to power at the election will face major economic problems.
3. The room was lit only by the candle (that) Martha carried.
4. It is difficult to predict what she will do next.
5. Whoever wins the contract to build the tunnel will have a very difficult job to do.
6. ‘Do you want to drive or go by train?’ I’d prefer to travel whatever/whichever way is faster.’
7. Help yourself to fruit from the trees in the garden. Take whatever you want.
8. She had bought a lot about what she was going to say.

Reference: Advanced Grammar in Use – Martin Hewings

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Relative Clause (2)

Bella, who is only six, can speak five languages

Part A

Some relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean:
• Valerie, who has died aged 90, escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.
• We received an offer of $80.000 for the house, which we accepted.

There are sometimes called non-defining relative clause to add information about a person or people:

We use who as the subject of the clause
• One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel, who is a member of the local council.

We use who or whom as the object of the clause, although whom is more formal and rarely used in spoken English:
• Professor Johnson, who(m) I have long admired, is to visit the university next week.

When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about thing or group of things, we use which as the subject or object of the clause:
• These drugs, which are used to treat stomach ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.
• That Masters course, which I took in 1990, is no longer taught at the college.

That is sometimes used instead of which, but some people this is incorrect, so it is probably safer not to use it. We also use which to refer to the whole situation talked about in sentence outside the relative clause:
• The book won’t be published until next year, which is disappointing.
• I have to go to hospital on Monday, which means I won’t be able to see you.

We can also use whose in a non-defining relative clause:
• Neil Adams, whose parents are both teachers, won first prize in the competition.

Notice that we don’t use zero relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.

Examples:
1. The Southam Chess Club, which has more than 50 members, meets weekly on Friday evenings.
2. Dr Richard Newman, who is an aviation expert, was asked to comment on the latest helicopter crash.
3. The strike by train drivers, which ended yesterday, is estimated to have cost over $3 million.
4. John Graham’s latest film, which is set in the north of Australia, is his first for more than five years.
5. The police are looking for two boys aged about 14, who stole a computer from the office.
6. The hurricane, which caused such damage in the islands, has now headed out to sea.

Part B

When we want to add information about the whole or a part of a particular number of things or people we can use a non-defining relative clause with of which or of whom after words such as all, both, each, many, most, neither, none, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.; the first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and superlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.):
• The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by a number of factors, most of which we have no control over.
• The bank was held up by a group of men, three of whom were said to be armed.
• The president has made many visits to Japan, the most recent of which began today.

Examples:
1. The film is about the lives of three women, all of whom are played by Angelina Jolie.
2. The island’s two million inhabitants, most of whom are peasant farmers, have been badly affected by the drought.
3. She has two older brothers, neither of whom went to university.
4. About 30 of her friends and relations, many of whom had travelled long distances, came to the airport to welcome her back.
5. The minister has recently visited Estonia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan, all of which have large Russian minorities.
6. The fish, the biggest of which is only 2 cm long, are multi-colored.
7. Scotland have won their last five international matches, one of which was against England.

Part C

We can use the following phrases at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause: at which point/time, by which point/time, during which time, and in which case:
• It might snow this weekend, in which case we won’t go to Wales.
• The bandages will be taken off a few days after the operation, at which point we will be able to judge how effective the treatment has been.
• The next Olympics are in three years, by which time Stevens will be 34.

Examples:
1. I might fail the test, in which case I’d probably re-sit it next year.
2. A bull charged towards the car, at which point I drove away quickly.
3. I didn’t finish work until 10 o’clock, by which time everyone had already gone home.
4. The meeting might go on for three or four hours, in which case I’ll be late home from work.
5. Sam started to tell one of his terrible old jokes, at which point I decided that I should go home.
6. I hadn’t seen Jane for nearly ten years, in/during which time I had got married and had two children.

Reference: Advanced Grammar in Use – Martin Hewings

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Relative Clauses (1)

The girl who I was talking about is beautiful

Part A

A relative clause gives more information about someone or something referred to in a main clause. Some relative clauses (defining relative clauses) are used to specify which person or thing we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean:
• The couple who live next to us have sixteen grandchildren.
• Luna and Ariel brought a camera which is black.

Notice that we don’t put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause. Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun: a wh-word ( who, which, etc.) or that. However, sometimes we omit the wh-word/that and use a zero relative pronoun.
• We went to a restaurant which/that) Evelyn Salt had recommended to us.

We prefer to put a relative clause immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it adds information to:
• The building for sale was the house which had a slate roof and was by the stream
(rather than The building for sale was the house by the stream which has a slate roof.)

Part B

When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of the clause. In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the subject. Notice that the verb follows the relative pronouns:
• Rockall is an uninhabited island which/that lies north west of mainland Scotland.
• We have a friend who/that plays the piano

In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the object. Notice that there is a noun (or pronoun) between the relative pronoun and the verb in the relative clause. In this case, we can use a zero relative pronoun.
• He showed me the rocks (which/that) he had brought back from Australia.
• That’s the man (who/that) I met at Allison’s party.
We can also use whom instead of who as object, although whom is very formal:
• She’s an actress whom most people think is at the peak of her career.

We use that as subject after something and anything; words such as all, little, much, and none used as nouns; and superlatives. (Which is also used as subject after something and anything, but less commonly. ) We use that or zero relative pronoun as object after these:
• These walls are all that remain of the city. (not.. all which remain…)
• She’s one of the kindest people (that) I know. (not… who I know.)
• Is there anything (that) I can do to help? (rather than…anything which I can do…)

Part C

You can’t add a subject or object to the relative clause in addition to the relative pronoun:
• The man who gave me the book was the librarian. (not The man who he gave me…)

Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main clause in addition to the relative clause is unnecessary, although it is found in speech:
• A friend of mine who is a solicitor helped me. (or, in speech A friend of mine who is a solicitor – she helped me.)

Examples
1. The thought of going home to his family was all that kept him happy while he was working abroad.
2. She was probably the hardest working student (that) I’ve ever taught.
3. Lewis, the man (who/m) Johnson beat in the last World Championships, has broken the world record.
4. Lightning bonfires at this time of the year is a tradition which goes back to the 17th century.
5. Dorothy said something (that) I couldn’t hear clearly.
6. There was little (that) we could do to help her.
7. The Royal Floridian is an express train which runs between New York and Miami.
8. The machine (which) I have to use in my job cost over a million pounds.
9. The diary (which) Ron kept when he was in prison was sold for $50,000.
10. I have a friend who ran in the New York Marathon last year.
11. We were told that we would be held responsible for anything that went wrong.
12. He’s probably the best golfer (that) I’ve played against.
13. Jane has now sold the car (which) she was given by her parents.
14. The house which is next to ours is for sale.
15. Most of the forests which once covered Britain have now been destroyed.
16. He took me to see the old farmhouse (which) he is rebuilding.
17. There have been complaints about the noise from people who live in the flats.
18. A doctor (who/m) we know has had to retire through ill health.
19. My brother who is in the army came to see us.
20. A small amount of money was all that was taken in the robbery.
21. The path was made by walkers who crossed the mountains each summer.
22. The difficulties of living near the volcano are well understood by the people who farm the land there.
23. The danger of driving is something that worries me each time I travel.
24. The park (which) I usually go running in is across the road.
25. I bought the present (which) I gave him for Christmas in Japan.
26. The person (who/m) we selected to represent us on the committee has had to resign due to illness.
27. It’s one of the most interesting books (that) I’ve read this year.


Reference: Advanced Grammar in Use - Martin Hewings

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Affirmative & Negative Agreement

Affirmative Agreement

When indicating that one person or thing does something and then adding that another does the same, use the word “so” or “too”. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction “and”, followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.

• When a form of the verb be is used in the main clause, the same tense of verb be is used in the simple statement that follows.

Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ S + verb (be) + too]
Example: I am happy and you are too.

Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ so + verb (be) + S ]
Example: I am happy and so are you.

• When a compound verb (auxiliary +verb), for example, will go, should do, has done, have written, must examine, etc., occurs in the main clause, the auxiliary of the main verb is used in the simple statement, and the subject and verb must agree.

Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ S + auxiliary only + too ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and Bella should too.

Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ so + auxiliary only + S ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and so does Bella.

• When any verb except be appears without any auxiliaries in the main clause, the auxiliary do, does, or did is used in the simple statement. The subject and verb must agree and the tense must be the same.

Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ S + do, does ,or did + too ]
Example: Tae Yeon plays guitar every day and Jessica does too.

Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ so + do, does, or did + S ]
Example: Yuri sung “Gee” and so did Yoona.

Additional Examples:
1. Rose likes to fly, and her brother does too.
2. They will leave at noon, and I will too.
3. He has an early appointment, and so do I.
4. She has already written her composition, and so have her friends.
5. Their plane is arriving at nine o’clock, and so is mine.
6. I should go grocery shopping this afternoon, and so should my neighbor.
7. We like to swim in the pool, and they do too.
8. Our Spanish teacher loves to travel, and so do we.
9. He has lived in Mexico for five years, and you have too.
10. I must write them a letter, and she must too.

Negative Agreement

“Either” and “neither” function in simple statements much like “so” and “too” in affirmative sentences. However, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. The same rules for auxiliaries, be and do, does, or did apply.

Negative statement + and + [ S + negative auxiliary or be + either]
Negative statement + and + [ neither + positive auxiliary or be + S ]

Examples:
I didn’t see Bella this morning. Edward didn’t see Bella this morning
I didn’t see Bella this morning and Edward didn’t either.
I didn’t see Bella this morning and neither did Edward.

Additional examples:
1. The children shouldn’t take that medicine, and neither should she.
2. We don’t plan to attend the concert, and neither do they.
3. I don’t like tennis, and he doesn’t either.
4. She didn’t see anyone she knew, and neither did Tim.
5. The Yankees couldn’t play due to the bad weather, and neither could the Angels.
6. Mary can’t type well, and her sister can’t either.
7. I’m not interested in reading that book, and neither is she.
8. They won’t have to work on weekends, and we won’t either.
9. I can’t stand listening to that music, and she can’t either.
10. Michael doesn’t speak English, and his family doesn’t either.
11. That scientist isn’t too happy with the project, and neither are her supervisors.
12. We can’t study in the library, and they can’t either.
13. I haven’t worked there long, and neither have you.
14. You didn’t pay the rent, and she didn’t either.
15. They didn’t want anything to drink, and neither did we.
16. John shouldn’t run so fast, and neither should you.
17. The students won’t accept the dean’s decision, and the faculty won’t either.
18. Your class hasn’t begun yet, and neither has mine.
19. She couldn’t attend the lecture, and her sister couldn’t either.
20. He didn’t know the answer, and neither did I.

Reference: Cliffs, Test of English as a Foreign Language Preparation Guide.1991.

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British English v. American English

Although English is generally the same all over the world, there are several differences between British and American English.

1. Spelling
Sometimes American and British English users spell things differently. Some of the main differences are:


In British English, words that end in -ize or -ization can often also be spelled -ise or -isation, for example both organization and organisation are correct in British English, but the letter z is the correct American spelling. However, the word advertise is always spelt with an s.

2. Vocabulary

Some words for the same things are different in British and American English. Here are some examples:



Sometimes words are neither specifically British or American, but a British or American speaker is more likely to use one word than another. For example, the word angry is correct in British and American English, but Americans usually use the word mad. The phrase a bit is also acceptable in both, but Americans are more likely to say a little. Similarly, British speakers are more likely to use the noun and verb post instead of mail, although mail is correct in both British and American English.

3. Grammar

There are also some grammatical differences between British and American English, for example when you are choosing the correct preposition to use. Here are some examples:

British
You can phone us on 0800 123123.
He looked round the corner.
Her accent is different from/to mine.
American
You can phone us at 01 800 555.
He looked around the corner.
Her accent is different from/than mine.

Sometimes, Americans can miss out a preposition when British people would always use one, for example with the verb protest. British speakers would always use the preposition about: Some students were protesting about the war, but the preposition can be missed out in American English: Some students were protesting the war.

4. Pronunciation

This dictionary shows the standard British English pronunciation, then the standard American English pronunciation after two lines (like this ||).

Some words are stressed in different ways in British English and American English. Look at the entry for address¹.
address¹ / 'dres || 'dres, 'ædres / n [C] 1 the details of where someone lives or works, including the number of the building, name of the street, town etc: I forgot to give Damien my new address. 2 a formal speech: the Gettysburg Address

Speakers of American English often say ADDress, whereas speakers of British English always say addRESS.

Reference: Longman Active Study Dictionary

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